Unit – 1 | Introduction to Cyber Security

Cyberspace

• Cyberspace is the term for the virtual world made possible by networked computers and the internet.
• Information is basically stored, accessed, and shared via electronic communication channels in this virtual environment.
• It includes all network-based digital exchanges, conversations, and transactions.
• People can interact, exchange information, do business, and carry out a variety of other activities all over the internet without having to be in the same physical place.
• Beyond geographical borders, cyberspace enables people to connect and engage in a variety of ways, including through websites, social media platforms, online games, and more.
• It is basically the space where online interactions occur and digital data is present.
• Social media sites like Facebook are an example of cyberspace.
  • Facebook is a virtual environment that you may interact with people all around the world, connect with friends, join groups, and share updates, images, and videos.
  • Everything you do on Facebook — from posting status updates to commenting on photos — occurs in cyberspace, facilitated by the platform’s digital infrastructure and network connections. Users can engage with each other regardless of their physical location, demonstrating the borderless nature of cyberspace.
• An online store like Amazon is another example of cyberspace. You may browse through millions of products, read reviews, compare prices, and make purchases using Amazon’s mobile app or website without ever having to step foot in a real store. In this digital world, information is shared between buyers and sellers, transactions take place online, and things are sent all over the world. Large-scale e-commerce is made possible by Amazon’s online presence, which links buyers and sellers globally in a 24/7 virtual marketplace.

• Key Features of Cyberspace
  • Interconnectivity: Data transport and communication between devices and systems are made possible by their interconnectedness.
  • Digital Presence: Through websites, social media accounts, and online services, people and organizations keep up a digital presence.
  • Virtual Interaction: Emails, instant messaging, video conversations, and virtual worlds are some of the ways that users can engage asynchronously or in real time.
  • Data Storage & Retrieval: Cyberspace facilitates the storing, retrieval, and processing of data through the use of large databases and cloud storage services.

• Example of Cyberspace components
• Social Media Networks:
  • Facebook: A social media platform that allows users to make profiles, exchange images and videos, message friends and family, and stay in touch.
  • Twitter: A microblogging platform where users can publish and engage with brief messages called “tweets.”
  • Instagram: A platform for sharing images and videos that allows users to follow and share material from other users.
• Website for e-commerce:
  • Amazon: An online store where customers can purchase and sell a large range of products and services.
• Search engines:
  • Google: The most popular search engine that indexes web pages to assist users in finding information on the internet.
  • Bing: A Microsoft-created search engine that offers features comparable to those of Google.
• Email Support:
  • Gmail: A free email service with search and email storing features created by Google.
  • Outlook: A Microsoft email service that is connected with other Microsoft programs and services.
• Financial services and online banking:
  • PayPal is an online payment system that facilitates electronic money transfers and offers a digital substitute for conventional paper-based methods such as money orders and cheques.
  • Online Banking Portals: Bank-provided websites and applications for online account management, money transfers, and bill payment.
• Services for Cloud Storage:
  • Google Drive: An online service for sharing, storing, and synchronizing information that enables users to work together on papers.
  • Dropbox: A web-based platform for storing and exchanging files and folders with people all over the world.
• Services for Streaming:
  • Netflix: An extensive selection of TV series, films, and documentaries are available on this subscription-based streaming platform.
  • YouTube: A website that allows users to upload, watch, and share videos.
• Internet gaming and virtual worlds:
  • World of Warcraft: A massively multiplayer online role-playing game (MMORPG) allows users to create characters and explore a vast virtual environment.
  • Second Life:  A computer-generated virtual world where users can make avatars and communicate with other users.
• Educational Platforms:
  • Coursera: An online learning platform that offers courses, specializations, and degrees from universities and companies around the world.
  • Khan Academy: A non-profit educational organization providing free online courses, lessons, and practice in various subjects.
• Collaboration and Communication Tools:
  • Zoom: A video conferencing tool that allows users to conduct virtual meetings, webinars, and group calls.
  • Slack: A messaging app for teams that enables communication through channels, direct messaging, and file sharing.

Overview of Computer and Web-Technology

• Computer and web technology involve a wide range of hardware, software, and protocols that enable the functionality of computers and the internet. Let’s check them.
  1. Hardware Components: The central processing unit (CPU), RAM, hard drives, solid-state drives, input devices (keyboard, mouse), output devices (monitor, printer), and networking components (network interface cards, routers) are among the hardware components that make up computers.
  2. Operating Systems: Operating systems (OS) provide services for computer programs and manage the hardware and software resources of computers. Popular operating systems include Linux, Unix variants, macOS, and Microsoft Windows.
  3. Software Development: Software development involves creating applications, programs, and systems that run on computers. Programming languages like Python, Java, C++, and JavaScript are used to write software, and Integrated Development Environments (IDEs) provide tools for coding, testing, and debugging.
  4. Networking: Networking technologies enable computers to communicate and share resources over Local Area Networks (LANs) and the internet. Protocols like TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) govern data transmission, while devices like routers, switches, and modems facilitate network connectivity.
  5. Internet Infrastructure: The internet is a global network of interconnected computers and servers. It relies on infrastructure such as data centers, fiber-optic cables, and network switches to transmit data across vast distances.
  6. Web technologies: The World Wide Web, or WWW, is an online collection of linked webpages and information.
  7. Among the web technologies are: Hypertext Markup Language, or HTML, is a markup language used to create webpages. The stylesheet language used to style HTML components is called CSS (Cascading Style Sheets). JavaScript is a programming language used to give websites dynamic information and interactivity. Web browsers are programs that render webpages and interpret web technologies. Examples of such programs are Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, and Microsoft Edge.
  8. Web Development: It is the process of creating, constructing, and managing websites and web applications. To create dynamic and interactive web experiences, developers employ a combination of HTML, CSS, JavaScript, and server-side languages (such as PHP, Python, and Ruby).
  9. Security: An essential component of computer and web technologies is security. Security measures including encryption, firewalls, antivirus programs, and secure protocols (like HTTPS) assist in preventing illegal access, cyberattacks, and data losses to data, systems, and networks.
  10. Cloud Computing: It allows users to access computing resources (e.g., servers, storage, databases) over the internet on a pay-as-you-go basis. Scalable and adaptable options for hosting apps and storing data are offered by cloud platforms such as Microsoft Azure, Google Cloud Platform, and Amazon Web Services (AWS).
  11. Emerging Technologies: As computer and web technology continue to advance, new opportunities for computing and networking are being created in fields like artificial intelligence (AI), machine learning, blockchain, Internet of Things (IoT), and virtual reality (VR).

Architecture of Cyberspace

• The architecture of cyberspace refers to the structural design and organization of the virtual environment created by interconnected computer systems and the internet. The functionality of cyberspace as a whole is made possible by the layers and components that make up this architecture. Here’s a summary of some important components:
  1. Physical Infrastructure: Data centers, servers, routers, switches, and fiber-optic cables are examples of the hardware that supports cyberspace. This is the lowest level of the architecture. These elements provide the internet its structural integrity and offer the connectivity required for data transfer.
  2. Network Protocols: To enable device communication and ensure the dependable transfer of data packets across networks, cyberspace depends on network protocols such as TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol). The guidelines and standards for data formatting, transmission, and reception are specified by protocols.
  3. Domain Name System (DNS): The DNS is a distributed naming system that converts numeral IP addresses, which computers use to identify and locate one another on the internet, into human-readable domain names (such as example.com). It facilitates users’ access to webpages and other online resources by providing the mapping between domain names and IP addresses.
  4. Web Architecture: Web servers, browsers, and web standards like JavaScript, HTML (Hypertext Markup Language), CSS (Cascading Style Sheets), and HTML (Hypertext Markup Language) are all included in the web architecture. Web browsers render webpages and allow interaction with web-based applications, whereas web servers host websites and serve material to users.
  5. Client-Server Model: In this model, Client devices—like PCs, tablets, and smartphones—interact with server systems to seek and obtain information or services. Clients start communication and show the information they receive to users, whereas servers host resources and reply to client requests.
  6. Cloud Computing: Through the internet, cloud computing architecture offers on-demand access to computing resources (such as servers, storage, and databases), playing a major role in cyberspace. Without having to handle real gear, cloud services enable businesses and people to extend their infrastructure, install apps, and store data.
  7. Security Infrastructure: With technologies like encryption, firewalls, intrusion detection systems (IDS), and secure protocols (like HTTPS) to guard against cyberattacks and unwanted access, security is a crucial component of cyberspace architecture.
  8. Emerging Technologies: As new technologies like artificial intelligence (AI), blockchain, the Internet of Things (IoT), and edge computing appear, cyberspace architecture is always changing. The future path of cyberspace architecture is being shaped by these technologies, which bring with them new difficulties and capabilities.

Communication and Web Technology

• Web technology and Communication include a range of tools, protocols, and systems that make it easier for people to connect and share information online. Let us check both of these.

• Communication: Communication involves the transmission of data, messages, and signals between individuals, devices, or systems. It includes a wide range of technologies, from traditional methods like telephones and postal mail to modern digital communication channels such as email, instant messaging, video conferencing, and social media.
• There are following key components of Communication technology:
  1. Telecommunication Infrastructure: This includes networks of cables, satellites, and wireless connections that enable long-distance communication.
  2. Communication Devices: Devices such as telephones, smartphones, computers, and tablets serve as endpoints for sending and receiving messages.
  3. Communication Protocols: Data transfer across networks is regulated by protocols such as TCP/IP, SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol), and SIP (Session Initiation Protocol).
  4. Communication Applications: Real-time communication and collaboration are facilitated by software programs and platforms such as email clients, messaging apps like WhatsApp and video conferencing systems like Zoom, Microsoft Teams.
• Communication technology has revolutionized the way that businesses, organizations, and individuals communicate and work together. It has made it easier to communicate instantly across geographical borders, corporate processes, and made it possible to engage in new kinds of social interaction and community development.
• Web Technology: Web technology refers to the software, protocols, and standards used to create and interact with content on the World Wide Web. It encompasses everything from the infrastructure that supports webpages to the programming languages and frameworks used to build dynamic web applications.
• There are following key components of web technology:
  1. Web Browsers: Web browsers are programs that render webpages and interpret web technologies including HTML, CSS, and JavaScript. Examples of these programs are Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, and Safari.
  2. Web Servers: Servers host websites and serve content to users’ web browsers upon request. They run web server software like Apache or Microsoft IIS.
  3. Markup Languages: HTML (Hypertext Markup Language) is the standard markup language for creating webpages and structuring content, while CSS (Cascading Style Sheets) is used for styling and layout.
  4. Scripting Languages: JavaScript is a scripting language that adds interactivity and dynamic behavior to webpages, allowing for features like form validation, animations, and AJAX (Asynchronous JavaScript and XML) requests.
  5. Frameworks and Libraries: Frameworks like React, Angular, as well as libraries like jQuery and Bootstrap, provide developers with tools and pre-built components for building responsive and feature-rich web applications.
• The manner that information is accessible, exchanged, and shown online has been completely transformed by web technology. It has made the expansion of social networking, online learning, e-commerce, and multimedia content consumption easier. Because they make it possible to perform daily activities like banking, shopping, entertainment, and communication online, web applications have become essential.

Internet

• The Internet is like a massive global network of interconnected computers and other devices, allowing communication and the exchange of information across the world.
• It is effectively a network of networks, made up of millions of interconnected private, public, academic, corporate, and government networks. Here are some key components of Internet:
  1. Network Infrastructure: It consists of the software and protocols that control data transmission over the network in addition to the hardware, such as servers, routers, switches, and cables.
  2. Protocols: These are the guidelines and conventions that specify how information is formatted, sent, and received via the Internet. FTP (File Transfer Protocol), HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol), and TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) are a few examples.
  3. Web World Wide (WWW): The World Wide Web is a network of connected hypertext documents that may be viewed online. It’s what you use when you use a web browser such as Firefox, Chrome, or Safari to browse websites.
  4. IP addresses: An IP (Internet Protocol) address is a unique numerical label that is assigned to each device that is connected to the Internet. This address acts as the device’s network identity. There are two types of IP addresses: IPv4 and IPv6.
  5. Domain Names: To make it easier for people to remember website addresses, domain names (e.g., swatilathia.com) are used instead of IP addresses. Domain names are translated into IP addresses by Domain Name System (DNS) servers.
  6. Web servers: These are the computers that use the Internet to store and deliver web pages to users. Your web browser makes a request to the relevant web server when you enter in a URL, and the web server responds by sending the requested webpage back to your browser.
  7. Internet Service Providers (ISPs): The companies that provide individuals and organizations with access to the Internet are known as ISPs. They connect their customers to the Internet through various means, such as dial-up, cable, fiber optic, or wireless connections.
  8. Security and Privacy: Security and Privacy are big concerns because of the amount of data that is carried over the Internet. Technologies that help defend against dangers like malware, hacking, and unauthorized access include VPNs (Virtual Private Networks), firewalls, antivirus software, and encryption.

• Advantages of Internet
• There are several benefits to using the internet, such as:
  • Access to Information: Search engines, online libraries, and instructional websites offer easy access to the world’s largest collection of knowledge on almost any subject.
  • Communication: It makes it possible for people to interact instantly via video calls, social media, messaging apps, and email.
  • Convenience: Time and effort are saved by using online shopping, banking, and other services, which also make it possible to perform transactions from any location.
  • Education: People can learn new skills and obtain degrees remotely through e-learning platforms and online courses, which increase accessibility to education.
  • Entertainment: Social networking, internet gaming, and streaming services offer an array of entertaining options that suit a wide range of interests.
  • Work Flexibility: People can now work from home or anyplace with an internet connection due to an increase in remote job opportunities.
  • Social Interaction: Social media platforms facilitate experience sharing, community involvement, and maintaining relationships with friends and family.
  • Business Opportunities: Businesses may use the internet to conduct e-commerce, access a worldwide audience, and expand the customer base through digital marketing.

• Disadvantages of Internet
• The internet has numerous benefits, but it also has a number of drawbacks.
  • Privacy Concerns: Identity theft and privacy problems arise from the ease with which personal information can be obtained, shared, or stolen.
  • Cyber Security Risks: A variety of cyber attacks, such as malware, phishing, and hacking, can damage personal and business data on the internet.
  • Misinformation & Fake News: False information and fake news can mislead people and cause anxiety or confusion due to its quick spread.
  • Addiction and Overuse: excessive use of the internet, particularly for social media and gaming, can result in addiction, which has an adverse effect on relationships with others, productivity, and mental health.

• Future Trends in Internet
  • 5G and Beyond: The introduction of 5G networks is expected to bring about quicker and more dependable internet access, setting the way for developments in smart cities, autonomous transportation, and the Internet of Things.
  • Artificial Intelligence: AI and machine learning are being incorporated into online services more and more, improving search engines, cyber security, and customized suggestions.
  • Decentralization: By lowering reliance on centralized authorities and improving privacy and security, technologies like blockchain seek to develop more decentralized internet services.

• Economic Impact of Internet
  • E-commerce: The ability for customers to buy goods and services online via platforms like Amazon and flipkart has completely changed the way that people shop.
  • Gig Economy: Websites like Upwork, Uber, and Airbnb have given rise to new business ventures and flexible work schedules.
  • Digital marketing: To reach and interact with customers, businesses utilize search engine optimization (SEO), social media marketing, and online advertising.

WWW (World Wide Web)

• The World Wide Web (WWW), sometimes just called the Web, is an Internet-based network of interconnected hypertext documents.
• Here is a summary of the main concepts and components of the World Wide Web:
  • Hypertext Markup Language (HTML): The common markup language for web pages is HTML. It enables web developers to organize text, picture, and multimedia content into a way that web browsers can display it.
  • Uniform Resource Locator (URL): The addresses used to fin*-+ resources on the Internet are known as URLs. Typically, they are composed of a domain name (like “example.com”), a protocol (like “http” or “https”), and a specific path to the resource (like “/page.html”). Web browsers use URLs to navigate to certain web pages.
  • Hyperlinks: Hyperlinks, sometimes called links are clickable components on websites that let users move between various resources and web pages. They can be pictorial or word-based, and to set them out from ordinary text, they usually have an underline or a different color.
  • Web browsers: Web browsers are programs that allow users to view and navigate web pages on the Internet. Web browsers including Chrome, Firefox, Safari, and Edge are widely used. Browsers use HTML, CSS (Cascading Style Sheets), and JavaScript to create interactive and visually appealing web pages.
  • Web Server: These are the computers that use the Internet to store and deliver web pages to users. Your web browser makes a request to the relevant web server when you enter in a URL, and the web server responds by sending the requested webpage back to your browser.
  • Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) and HTTPS: HTTP is the protocol used to transfer data between web servers and web browsers. It specifies how web pages are requested and delivered, as well as how web browsers and servers interact. A secure variant of HTTP, known as HTTPS (HTTP Secure), offers improved security and privacy by encrypting data as it is transferred between the browser and server.
  • Web Development: It is the process of creating, constructing, and managing websites and web applications. To create dynamic and interactive web experiences, developers employ a combination of HTML, CSS, JavaScript, and server-side languages (such as PHP, Python, and Ruby).

Advent of Internet

• The advent of the internet brought about significant modifications in daily living, information sharing, and human communication. It refers to the time in the late 20th century when the internet started to take shape as a vast, globally connected computer network.
• The U.S. Department of Defense’s ARPANET project, which was funded in the 1960s, is where the internet had its start. It created the foundation for what would eventually become the modern internet, with its original purpose being to enable communication between research organizations and universities.
• The emergence of the internet was facilitated by several significant developments:
  1. TCP/IP development: The Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) offered the foundation for data transfer across many networks. Its creation in the 1970s was essential to the internet’s growth.
  2. Commercialization: The internet changed from being a government and academic network to a platform that was used for commercial purposes in the 1990s. As a result, the World Wide Web was established, making it simpler for people to share and access information using web browsers.
  3. Enhanced Accessibility: As costs came down and technology improved, more people were able to access the internet. People all around the world could now access the internet from their homes, offices, and mobile devices thanks to the advent of dial-up connections, broadband, and mobile internet.
  4. Impact on Society and Culture: The internet completely changed how people interact with one another, transact business, obtain information, and pass the time. Search engines, social media sites, online retailers, streaming services, and other internet tools have become essential components of contemporary life.
  5. Global Connectivity: Possibly the most significant contribution of the internet has been the incredible level of global connectivity. It crosses national borders and enables real-time global communication and collaboration between people, companies, and organizations.
• All things considered, the introduction of the internet has had a significant impact on society, influencing the current digital era and completely changing almost every area of human existence. It has changed how we communicate with one another and the outside world, empowered people and communities, and democratized access to knowledge.

Internet Infrastructure for Data Transfer and Governance

• A wide range of technologies, protocols, and regulations are included in internet infrastructure for data transfer and governance. These elements are intended to make it easier for data to be transferred over networks in a safe, effective, and ethical manner. Here is an overview of the key components involved in internet infrastructure for data transfer and governance:
• Internet Infrastructure for Data Transfer

1. Physical Layer:
   • Cables & Fiber Optics: The foundation of the internet is made up of fiber optic cables, underwater cables, and other physical media that can carry data across vast distances.
   • Data centers: These are places where network hardware and servers are kept. These are essential for handling, distributing, and storing data.
   • Internet Exchange Points (IXPs): These are actual places where traffic from various networks is connected and exchanged. IXPs shorten the distance that data must travel, increasing speed and lowering costs.
2. Network Layer:
   • Routers & Switches: Devices that transport data packets across networks according to the most effective paths are known as routers and switches.
   • Protocols: Groups of guidelines that specify how information is sent over a network. Important protocols include BGP (Border Gateway Protocol), which is used for routing between autonomous systems, and TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol), which is used for data transport and routing.
   • Content Delivery Networks (CDNs): These are networks of dispersed computers that improve load times and lower latency by delivering web content to users based on their location.
3. Application Layer:
   • Web Servers and Application Servers: Respond to client (browser) requests, send web content, or launch apps.
   • o DNS (Domain Name System): converts domain names that are readable by humans into IP addresses that are used by computers to identify one another over a network.

• Internet Governance

Internet Society

• The non-profit organization, Internet Society (ISOC), which was established in 1992, is to promote the open development, evolution, and usage of the Internet for the global benefit of all people. Its goal is to maintain the internet’s openness, reliability, security, and global connectivity. It emphases on a few key things:
  • Advocacy: To ensure that there is always opportunity for free speech and innovation on the internet, ISOC advocates for concepts like privacy and freedom of expression.
  • Technical Development: The internet is kept safe and operational by the development of standards and protocols that are aided by ISOC.
  • Global Collaboration: Working with organizations globally, ISOC addresses internet-related issues and promotes collaboration.
  • Policy Forums: To make sure that laws promote an inclusive and open internet, ISOC takes part in debates and forums concerning internet governance.
  • Community Building: To encourage people to take part in influencing the direction of the internet, ISOC hosts fellowship, interacts with communities, and offers educational materials.
• To put it simply, ISOC acts as a kind of guardian for the internet, ensuring that it continues to be a place where people can freely communicate, learn, and innovate.

Regulation of Cyberspace

• Cyberspace regulation refers to the implementation and observance of legal frameworks, guidelines, and regulations that control conduct, usage, and communication within the virtual realm. The goal is to guarantee that the internet continues to be a fair, safe, and secure medium for trade, innovation, and communication. Below is a summary of the relevant features:

• Data Privacy and Protection:
• Laws and Regulations: Governments around the world implement laws to protect personal data. Examples include the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) in Europe and the California Consumer Privacy Act (CCPA) in the United States.
• Compliance: Organizations must fulfil with these regulations to protect users’ personal information and data.

• Cybersecurity:
• Frameworks and Standards: Various frameworks like the NIST (National Institute of Standards and Technology) Cybersecurity Framework provide guidelines for managing and reducing cybersecurity risks.
• Legislation: Governments pass laws to enhance cybersecurity measures, fight cybercrime, and protect critical infrastructure.

• Content Regulation:
• Censorship: Some governments regulate content to prevent the spread of harmful or illegal information, which can include measures against hate speech, misinformation, and illegal activities.
• Intellectual Property: Laws protect intellectual property rights online, fighting piracy and unauthorized use of copyrighted materials.

• Net Neutrality:
• Principle: Net neutrality ensures that internet service providers (ISPs) treat all data on the internet equally, without discriminating or charging differently based on user, content, website, or application.
• Policies: Various countries have policies in place to enforce net neutrality, maintaining a level playing field for all online services and content.

• E-Commerce and Consumer Protection:
• Regulations: Governments create laws to protect consumers engaging in online transactions, ensuring secure and fair practices in e-commerce.
• Security Standards: Standards for online payments and data protection help safeguard consumer information and financial transactions.

• International Cooperation:
• Contracts and Agreements: Countries collaborate on international contracts and agreements to address cross-border cyber threats, data flow, and internet governance.
• Organizations: International bodies like the United Nations and the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) work on creating global policies and standards for cyberspace regulation.

• Digital Rights and Freedoms:
• Freedom of Expression: Regulations often balance the protection of freedom of expression with the need to prevent harmful content.
• Digital Inclusion: Policies aim to ensure that all individuals, regardless of their socio-economic status, have access to the internet and digital technologies.

Issues and Challenges of Cyber Security

• Although there are many advantages to living in the digital age, there are drawbacks as well, such as cyber security risks. It’s a complicated and never-ending challenge because these dangers are always changing. This is an overview of some of the major problems and difficulties facing cyber security today:

• Changing Threats:
• Ransomware on the Rise: Sophisticated cybercriminals are increasingly focusing their attacks on critical infrastructure, locking down data and demanding a ransom to unlock it.
• Phishing Gets Personal: Users are being tricked into giving personal information by phishing schemes that are getting more targeted (spear phishing) and difficult to identify.

• Increasing the Attack Surface:
• The Internet of Things (IoT): The number of potential entry points for attackers increases as more appliances, such as refrigerators and thermostats, are connected to the internet (IoT).
• Cloud Security Issues: Although cloud computing provides flexibility, there are new security dangers involved as well. Companies must confirm that the cloud providers they choose have robust security protocols in place.
• Mobile Malware: Malware that may follow your activities or steal data is increasingly targeting smartphones and tablets.

• Human Aspects:
• Remote Workforce: As remote work becomes more common, protecting access to corporate data and systems from outside the office network becomes more difficult.
• Cybersecurity Awareness: A common tactic used in cyberattacks is to fool victims into opening infected attachments or clicking on fake links.

• Other Challenges:
• Staying ahead of Zero-Day Attacks: These are brand-new vulnerabilities that are hard to fight against since software developers are unaware of them.
• Globalized Dangers: Because cybercrime is a global issue, it is challenging to find attackers and enforce the law.

Assignment

1. What are the key components and characteristics of cyberspace?
2. Explain Architecture of Cyberspace
3. What are key components of web technology?
4. Explain World Wide Web
5. Explain layers of Internet Infrastructure for Data Transfer
6. Explain key features of Internet Governance
7. List Key Institutions in Internet Governance
8. Explain activities of ISOC
9. Explain Cybersecurity principles
10. What are some of the major issues and challenges facing cyber security today, and how are they being addressed?